I. History
-phonograph cylinder 1889 William Dickson
-live musical accompaniment by 1900

•     added emotional undertones
•     cue sheets for accompanist
•     compilation of symphonic themes for some films like Birth of a Nation
•     some use of sound effects

Early on in sound game -- need for soundproof housing for movie cameras. Also, stars had to stand near each other and mikes. Compromised creativity as they were unable to really move around -- static medium shots became standard
-- As early as 1929, sound was experimented with again.
    Use of multiple channel sound recording
    soundmixing
    postsynchronization -- Rouben Mamoulian, for example, shot much silently and then dubbed -- set the standard for dubbing.
-- Musicals and dance numbers operated in opposite fashion with the music first recorded and then actors danced to the music
-- Postsynchronizing dialogue was harder than postsyn. music or sound effects.
-- Refinements in mixing multiple postrecorded sound tracks resulted in the common use of background music.
Gradually, other techniques were refined and invented resulting in such products as stereophonic sound, Dolby sound, and magnetic tape.

II. Importance of sound
Attention should be paid to sound as well as to editing, directing, etcetra, as it, too, has artistic ramifications.
2 types:

• synchronous -- matched to on-screen source, such as a radio
• asynchronous -- no on-screen source visible

Sound provides a direct sense of reality, no need for interruption of narrative continuity by titles as in silent films. Tells what must be told, gives greater expressive possiblities to the speakers. Dialogue physically authenticates the speaker as an individual. Confirms the audience's assumption that the image projected is that of a real person and not simply a character.

Cinema v. theater: Dialogue in cinema is a fixed "reality"; same reading and interpretation consecutively. In theater, there are variations on the meaning due to different actors and possibilities of reading and rereading the material in different ways. The words and the performer are less obviously separable in cinema. The sound of the performer is as importatn as the words. Screen personae are established: Jimmy Stewart, Cary Grant, Bette Davis, Mae West, Bogart

Dialogue may be evaluated by:

• meaning of words
• how much dialogue is in the film
• how it's used (ex. Bringing Up Baby)

Narration :

• can reveal a character to the viewer
• can reveal the meaning of an event as the narrator is speaking from a position in the future -- s/he knows how story turned out (ex. Wonder Years)
• possible reveals a counterpoint between the narrator's perception and that of the audience
• tone, timbre, and inflection give meaning to what is narrated (true for dialogue in general)
• can unify that which is otherwise fragmented and disconnected, unifies visual images. Creates cohesion or a unified whole.

Sound effects: also synchronous and asynchronous

• gives sense of reality to film. The film's physical world is authenticated, even worlds which are fantastic. When the cardboard door slams, we don't think of it as cardboard
• can be manipulated to create atmosphere, meaning, and nuance. Can highlight certain noises over others to reveal importance (ex. hearing a ticking clock in the middle of a crowded bar)
• asynchronous sound can add emotional depth or give interpretation of event -- like montage, only simultaneous
• extends the world beyond that of the frame and gives depth to an artificial world (ex. sound of traffic in Rope -- asynchronous)

Background music:

• generally not noticeable. Support for the film's images, inc. time, place, and mood. Can help to create tone. (ex. Koyaanisquatsi, Powasqattsi) Complementary function
• can also work as a narrative device to link shots, scenes, and sequences.
• can work as a foreshadowing device.

• as often synchronous as asynchronous. Bars, car radios, record/CD players. Can provide atmosphere supporting actions of characters.
• conventions -- person = performer in show business story or sings to reveal emotional state during narrative.
• lends rhythm and atmosphere; structure and cements images otherwise discontinuous; can also guide audience response.

Selective Sound:
The process by which some sounds are removed from the track while others are retained is "selective sound." Creates sound perspective. Emphasizes some sounds and not others. Indicates, perhaps, how a character hears rather than a realistic sound mix. Helps create empathy/identification with character.

Psychological subjectivity can also be enhanced through distortion combined with amplification. It not only links audience with character but allows the audience to become part of the process

Amplification can also be dramatic rather than producing identification with the character. Such as letting us hear a conversation we wouldn't otherwise hear. Or providing excitement in a chase sequence.

Sometimes sound can create counterpoint (counterpoint is when the various elements of the film contradict each other to provide new meaning).

Can be:
dialogue with dialogue
various conversations going on at once but we're able to hear one conversation more than others.
dialogue with music

sound and image creating simultaneous meaning. Like montage but simultaneous, more subtle and clear. (For example, in Modern Times one can hear the sheep with also seeing commuters)

silence and image -- tends to distance viewer and make aware of artificiality.

Sound Bridges:
sound can also be used to bridge images, helping to link differing images and letting audience realize the connection of images. This bridge can be spatial or temporal.

Sound conventions result in greater significance than actual words or music convey.
Ex. national anthems cause reactions, represent qualities of nation.
"Le Marseillaise" from The Grand Illusion
horror films -- groaning stairs and doors, eerie music.