The true point of view in the history of this nation is not the Atlantic coast, it is the Great West.
--FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER 

Frederick Jackson Turner, THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY

In a recent bulletin of the Superintendent of the Census for 1890 appear these significant words: "Up to and including 1880 the country had a frontier of settlement, but at present the unsettled area has been so brokenÊinto by isolated bodies of sett lement that there can hardly be said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its extent, its westward movement, etc., it can not, therefore, any longer have a place in the census reports." This brief official statement marks the closing of a great historic movement. Up to our own day American history has been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West. The existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession, and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American development. 

Behind institutions, behind constitutional forms and modifications, lie theÊvital forces that call these organs into life and shape them to meetÊchanging conditions. The peculiarity of American institutions is the factÊthat they have been compelled to adapt themselves to the changes of anÊexpanding people-to the changes involved in crossing a continent, in winningÊa wilderness, and in developing at each area of this progress out of theÊprimitive economic and political conditions of the frontier int o the complexity of city life. Said Calhoun in 1817, '"We are great, and rapidly---I was about to say fearfully ---growing!" So saying, he touched theÊdistinguishing feature of American life. All peoples show development; theÊgerm theory of politics has been sufficiently emphasized. In the case of most nations, however, the development has occurred in a limited area, and if the nation has expanded, it has met other growing peoples whom it has conquered. But in the case of the United States we have a different phenomenon. Limiting our attention to the Atlantic coast, we have the familiar phenomenon of the evolution of institutions in a limited area, such as the rise of representative government the differentiation of simple colonial governments into complex organs; the progress from primitive industrial society, without division of labor, up to manufacturing civilization. But we have in addition to this a recurrence of the process of evolution in each western area reached in the process of expansion. Thus American development has exhibited not merely advance along a single line, but a return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier line, and a new development for that area. American social development has been continually beginning over again on the frontier. This perennial , this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward-with its few opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character. The true point of view in the history of this nation is not the Atlantic coast, it is the Great West. Even the slavery struggle, which is made so exclusive an object of attention by writers like Professor von Holst, occupies its important place in American history because of its relation to westward expansion. 

In this advance, the frontier is the outer edge of the wave the meeting point between savagery and civilization. Much has been written about the frontier from the point of view of border warfare and the chase, but as a field for the serious study of the economist and the historian it has been neglected.

The American frontier is sharply distinguished from the European frontier---a fortified boundary line running through dense populations. The most significant thing about the American frontier is that it lies at the hither edge of free land. In the census reports it is treated as the margin of thatÊsettlement which has a density of two or more to the square mile. The termÊis an elastic one, and for our purposes does not need sharp definition. WeÊshall consider the whole frontier belt, including the Indian country and theÊouter margin of the "settled area" of the census reports. This paper willÊmake no attempt to treat the subject exhaustively; its aim is simply to callÊattention to the frontier as a fertile field for investigation, and toÊsuggest s ome of the problems which arise in connection with it.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

In the settlement of America we have to observe how European life enteredÊthe continent, and how America modified and developed that life and reactedÊon Europe. Our early history is the study of European germs developing in anÊAmerican environment. Too exclusive attention has been paid by institutionalÊstudents to the Germanic origins, too little to the American factors theÊfrontier is the line of most rapid and effective Americanization. AfterÊwilderness masters the colonist finds him a European i n dress, industries,Êtools, modes of travel, and thought. It takes him from the railroad car andÊputs him in the birch canoe. It strips off the garments of civilization andÊarrays him in the hunting shirt and the moccasin. It puts him in the logÊcabin of the Cherokee and Iroquois and runs an Indian palisade around him.ÊBefore long he has gone to planting Indian corn and plowing with a sharpÊstick; he shouts the war cry and takes the scalp in orthodox Indian fashion.ÊIn short, at the frontier the environme nt is at first too strong for theÊman. He must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so heÊfits himself into the Indian clearings and follows the Indian trails. LittleÊby little he transforms the wilderness, but the outcome is not the o ldÊEurope, not simply the development of Germanic germs, any more than theÊfirst phenomenon was a case of reversion to the Germanic mark. The fact isÊthat here is a new product that is American. At first, the frontier was theÊAtlantic coast the frontier o f Europe in a very real sense. Moving westward,Êthe frontier became more and more American. As successive terminal morainesÊresult from successive glaciations, so each frontier leaves its tracesÊbehind it, and when it becomes a settled area the region sti ll partakes ofÊthe frontier characteristics. Thus the advance of the frontier has meant aÊsteady movement away from the influence of Europe, a steady growth ofÊindependence on American lines. And to study this advance, the men who grewÊup under these cond itions, and the political, economic, and social resultsÊof it, is to study the really American part of our history.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

In the course of the seventeenth century the frontier was advanced up theÊAtlantic river courses, just beyond the "fall line," and the tidewaterÊregion became the settled area. In the first half of the eighteenth centuryÊanother advance occurred. T raders followed the Delaware and Shawnee IndiansÊto the Ohio as early as the end of the first quarter of the century.ÊGovernor Spotswood, of Virginia, made an expedition in 1714 across the BlueÊRidge. The end of the first quarter of the century saw the ad vance of theÊScotch-lrish and the Palatine Germans up the Shenandoah Valley into theÊwestern part of Virginia, and along the Piedmont region of the Carolinas.ÊThe Germans in New York pushed the frontier of settlement up the Mohawk toÊGerman Flats. In Penn sylvania the town of Bedford indicates the line ofÊsettlement. Settlements had begun on New Rivers a branch of the Kanawhan andÊon the sources of the Yadkin and French Broad. The King attempted to arrestÊthe advance by his proclamation of 1763, forbidding settlement beyond theÊsources of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic; but in vain. In the periodÊof the Revolution the frontier crossed the Alleghenies into Kentucky andÊTennessee, and the upper waters of the Ohio were settled. When the firstÊcensus was taken in 1790, the continuous settled area was bounded by a lineÊwhich ran near the coast of Maine, and included New England except a portionÊof Vermont and New Hampshire, New York along the Hudson and up the MohawkÊabout Schenectady, eastern and souther n Pennsylvania, Virginia well acrossÊthe Shenandoah Valley, and the Carolinas and eastern Georgia. Beyond thisÊregion of continuous settlement were the small settled areas of Kentucky andÊTennessee, and the Ohio, with the mountains intervening between the m and theÊAtlantic area, thus giving a new and important character to the frontier.ÊThe isolation of the region increased its peculiarly American, and the needÊof transportation facilities to connect it with the East called outÊimportant schemes of intern al improvement, which will be noted farther on.ÊThe "West," as a self-conscious section, began to evolve.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

From decade to decade distinct advances of the frontier occurred. By theÊcensus of 1820 the settled area included Ohio, southern Indiana andÊIllinois, southeastern Missouri, and about one-half of Louisiana. ThisÊsettled area had surrounded Indian a reas, and the management of these tribesÊbecame an object of political concern.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

The frontier region of the time lay along the Great Lakes, where Astor'sÊAmerican Fur Company operated in the Indian trade, and beyond theÊMississippi, where Indian traders extended their activity even to the RockyÊMountains; Florida also furnished frontier conditions. The Mississippi RiverÊregion was the scene of typical frontier settlements.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

The rising steam navigation on western waters, the opening of the ErieÊCanal, and the westward extension of cotton culture added five frontierÊstates to the Union in this period. Grund, writing in 1836, declares: '"ItÊappears then that the universa l disposition of Americans to emigrate to theÊwestern wilderness, in order to enlarge their dominion over inanimateÊnature, is the actual result of an expansive power which is inherent inÊthem, and which by continually agitating all classes of society isÊ constantly throwing a large portion of the whole population on the extremeÊconfines of the State, in order to gain space for its development. Hardly isÊa new State or Territory formed before the same principle manifests itselfÊagain and gives rise to a fu rther emigration; and so is it destined to go onÊuntil a physical barrier must finally obstruct its progress."Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

In the middle of this century the line indicated by the present easternÊboundary of Indian Territory, Nebraska, and Kansas marked the frontier ofÊthe Indian country. Minnesota and Wisconsin still exhibited frontierÊconditions, but the distinctive f rontier of the period is found inÊCalifornia, where the gold discoveries had sent a sudden tide of adventurousÊminers, and in Oregon, and the settlements in Utah. As the frontier hadÊleaped over the Alleghenies, so now it skipped the Great Plains and theÊ Rocky Mountains; and in the same way that the advance of the frontiersmanÊbeyond the Alleghenies had caused the rise of important questions ofÊtransportation and internal improvement, so now the settlers beyond theÊRocky Mountains needed means of communic ation with the East, and in theÊfurnishing of these arose the settlement of the Great Plains and theÊdevelopment of still another kind of frontier life. Railroads, fostered byÊland grants, sent an increasing tide of immigrants into the Far West. TheÊUnite d States Army fought a series of Indian wars in Minnesota, Dakota, andÊthe Indian Territory.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

By 1880 the settled area had been pushed into northern Michigan, Wisconsin,Êand Minnesota, along Dakota rivers, and in the Black Hills region, and wasÊascending the rivers of Kansas and Nebraska. The development of mines inÊColorado had drawn isola ted frontier settlements into that region, andÊMontana and Idaho were receiving settlers. The frontier was found in theseÊmining camps and the ranches of the Great Plains. The superintendent of theÊcensus for 1890 reports, as previously stated, that the s ettlements of theÊWest lie so scattered over the region that there can no longer be said to beÊa frontier line.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

In these successive frontiers we find natural boundary lines which haveÊserved to mark and to affect the characteristics of the frontiers, namely:Êthe "fall line"; the Allegheny Mountains; the Mississippi the Missouri whereÊits direction approximat es north and south; the line of the arid lands,Êapproximately the ninety-ninth meridian; and the Rocky Mountains. The fallÊline marked the frontier of the seventeenth century; the Alleghenies that ofÊthe eighteenth; the Mississippi that of the first quart er of the nineteenth;Êthe Missouri that of the middle of this century (omitting the CaliforniaÊmovement); and the belt of the Rocky Mountains and the arid tract, theÊpresent frontier. Each was won by a series of Indian wars.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

At the Atlantic frontier one can study the germs of processes repeated atÊeach successive frontier. We have the complex European life sharplyÊprecipitated by the wilderness into the simplicity of primitive conditions.ÊThe first frontier had to meet its Indian question, its question of theÊdisposition of the public domain, of the means of intercourse with olderÊsettlements, of the extension of political organization, of religious andÊeducational activity. And the settlement of these and similar ques tions forÊone frontier served as a guide for the next. The American student needs notÊto go to the "prim little townships of Sleswick" for illustrations of theÊlaw of continuity and development. For example, he may study the origin ofÊour land policies in the colonial land policy; he may see how the systemÊgrew by adapting the statutes to the customs of the successive frontiers. HeÊmay see how the mining experience in the lead regions of Wisconsin,ÊIllinois, and Iowa was applied to the mining laws of the Sierras, and howÊour Indian policy has been a series of experimentations on successiveÊfrontiers. Each tier of new States has found in the older ones material forÊits constitutions. Each frontier has made similar contributions to AmericanÊcharacters, as w ill be discussed farther on.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

But with all these similarities there are essential differences, due to theÊplace element and the time element is evident that the farming frontier ofÊthe Mississippi Valley presents different conditions from the miningÊfrontier of the Rocky Mounta ins. The frontier reached by the PacificÊRailroad, surveyed into rectangles, guarded by the United States Army, andÊrecruited by the daily immigrant ship, moves forward at a swifter pace andÊin a different way than the frontier reached by the birch canoe or the packÊhorse. The geologist traces patiently the shores of ancient seas, maps theirÊareas, and compares the older and the newer. It would be a work worth theÊhistorian's labors to mark these various frontiers and in detail compare oneÊwith another. N ot only would there result a more adequate conception ofÊAmerican development and characteristics, but invaluable additions would beÊmade to the history of society.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

Loria, the Italian economist, has urged the study of colonial life as an aidÊin understanding the stages of European development, affirming that colonialÊsettlement is for economic science what the mountain is for geology,Êbringing to light primitiv e stratifications. "America," he says, "has theÊkey to the historical enigma which Europe has sought for centuries in vain,Êand the land which has no history reveals luminously the course of universalÊhistory." There is much truth in this. The United Stat es lies like a hugeÊpage in the history of society. Line by line as we read this continentalÊpage from West to East we find the record of social evolution. It beginsÊwith the Indian and the hunter; it goes on to tell of the disintegration ofÊsavagery by t he entrance of the trader, the pathfinder of civilization; weÊread the annals of the pastoral stage in ranch life; the exploitation of theÊsoil by the raising of unrotated crops of corn and wheat in sparsely settledÊfarming communities; the intensive cult ure of the denser farm settlement;Êand finally the manufacturing organization with city and factory system.ÊThis page is familiar to the student of census statistics, but how little ofÊit has been used by our historians. Particularly in eastern States thi s pageÊis a palimpsest. What is now a manufacturing State was in an earlier decadeÊan area of intensive farming. Earlier yet it had been a wheat area, andÊstill earlier the "range" had attracted the cattle-herder. Thus Wisconsin,Ênow developing manufactur e, is a State with varied agricultural interests,ÊBut earlier it was given over to almost exclusive grain-raising, like NorthÊDakota at the present time.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

Each of these areas has had an influence in our economic and politicalÊhistory; the evolution of each into a higher stage has worked politicalÊtransformations. But what constitutional historian has made any adequateÊattempt to interpret political fa cts by the light of these social areas andÊchanges?Ê ÊÊÊ 

The Atlantic frontier was compounded of fisherman, fur-trader, miner,Êcattle-raiser, and farmer. Excepting the fisherman, each type of industryÊwas on the march toward the West, impelled by an irresistible attraction.ÊEach passed in successive waves across the continent. Stand at CumberlandÊGap and watch the procession of civilization, marching single file- theÊbuffalo following the trail to the salt springs, the Indian, the fur-traderÊand hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pioneer farmer and the fronti er hasÊpassed by. Stand at South Pass in the Rockies a century later and see theÊsame procession with wider intervals between. The unequal rate of advanceÊcompels us to distinguish the frontier into the trader's frontier, theÊrancher's frontier, or the mi ner's frontier, and the farmer's frontier. WhenÊthe mines and the cowpens were still near the fall line the traders' packÊtrains were tinkling across the Alleghenies, and the French on the GreatÊLakes were fortifying their posts, alarmed by the British tr ader's birchÊcanoe. When the trappers scaled the Rockies, the farmer was still near theÊmouth of the Missouri.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

Why was it that the Indian trader passed so rapidly across the continent?ÊWhat effects followed from the trader's frontier? The trade was coeval withÊAmerican discovery Norsemen, Vespucius, Verrazani, Hudson, John Smith, allÊtrafficked for furs. The Plymouth Pilgrims settled in Indian cornfields, andÊtheir first return cargo was of beaver and lumber. The records of theÊvarious New England colonies show how steadily exploration was carried intoÊthe wilderness by this trade. What is true for New Engla nd is, as would beÊexpected, even plainer for the rest of the colonies. All along the coastÊfrom Maine to Georgia the Indian trade opened up the river courses. SteadilyÊthe trader passed westward, utilizing the older lines of French trade. TheÊOhio, the G reat Lakes, the Mississippi, and the Platte, the lines of westernÊadvance, were ascended by traders. They found the passes in the RockyÊMountains and guided Lewis and Clark, Fremont, and Bidwell. The explanationÊof the rapidity of this advance is connecte d with the effects of the traderÊon the Indian's;e trading post left the unarmed tribes at the mercy of thoseÊthat had purchased firearms a truth which the Iroquois Indians wrote inÊblood, and so the remote and unvisited tribes gave eager welcome to theÊt rade;?"The savages," wrote La Salle, "take better care of us French than ofÊtheir own children; from us only can they get guns and goods."this accountsÊfor the trader's power and the rapidity of his advance;"Thus theÊdisintegrating forces of civilization entered the wilderness. Every riverÊvalley and Indian trail became a fissure in Indian society, and so thatÊsociety became honeycombed. Long before the pioneer farmer appeared on theÊscene, primitive Indian life had passed away. The farmers met Indians ar medÊwith guns. The trading frontier, while steadily undermining Indian power byÊmaking the tribes ultimately dependent on the whites, yet, through its saleÊof guns, gave to the Indian increased power of resistance to the farmingÊfrontier. French colonizat ion was dominated by its trading frontier; EnglishÊcolonization by its farming frontier. There was an antagonism between theÊtwo frontiers as between the two nations. Said Duquesne to the Iroquois,Ê'"Are you ignorant of the difference between the king of England and theÊking of France? Go see the forts that our king has established and you willÊsee that you can still hunt under their very walls. They have been placedÊfor your advantage in places which you frequent. The English, on theÊcontrary, are no soo ner in possession of a place than the game is drivenÊaway. The forest falls before them as they advance, and the soil is laidÊbare so that you can scarce find the wherewithal to erect a shelter for theÊnight."Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

And yet, in spite of this opposition of the interests of the trader and Êthe farmer, the Indian trade pioneered the way for civilization. TheÊbuffalo trail became the Indian trail, and this became the trader'sÊ"traces'; the trails widened into road s, and the roads into turnpikes, andÊthese in turn were transformed into railroads. The same origin can be shownÊfor the railroads of the South, the Far West, and the Dominion of Canada.ÊThe trading posts reached by these trails were on the sites of India nÊvillages which had been placed in positions suggested by nature; and theseÊtrading posts, situated so as to comma nd the water systems of the country,Êhave grown into such cities as Albany, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Chicago, St.ÊLouis, Council Bluffs, and Ka nsas City. Thus civilization in America hasÊfollowed the arteries made by geology, pouring an ever richer tide throug hÊthem, until at last the slender paths of aboriginal intercourse have beenÊbroadened and interwoven into the complex mazes of modern com mercial lines;Êthe wilderness has been interpenetrated by lines of civilization growingÊever more numerous. It is like the steady growth of complex nervous systemÊfor the originally simple, inert continent.If one would understand why weÊare today one nati on, rather than a collection of isolated states, he mustÊstudy this economic and social consolidation of the country. In thisÊprogress from savage conditions lie topics for the evolutionist.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

The effect of the Indian frontier as a consolidating agent in our history isÊimportant. From the close of the seventeenth century various intercolonialÊcongresses have been called to treat with Indians and establish commonÊmeasures of defense. Part icularism was strongest in colonies with no IndianÊfrontier. This frontier stretched along the western border like a cord ofÊunion. The Indian was a common danger, demanding united action. MostÊcelebrated of these conferences was the Albany Congress of 17 54, called toÊtreat with the Six Nations, and to consider plans of union. Even a cursoryÊreading of the plan proposed by the congress reveals the importance of theÊfrontier. The powers of the general council and the officers were, chiefly,Êthe determinati on of peace and war with the Indians, the regulation ofÊIndian trade, the purchase of Indian lands, and the creation and governmentÊof new settlements as a security against the Indians. It is evident that theÊunifying tendencies of the Revolutionary perio d were facilitated by theÊprevious cooperation in the regulation of the frontier. In this connectionÊmay be mentioned the importance of the frontier, from that day to this, as aÊmilitary training school, keeping alive the power of resistance toÊaggression , and developing the stalwart and rugged qualities of theÊfrontiersman.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

It would not be possible in the limits of this paper to trace the otherÊfrontiers across the continent. Travelers of the eighteenth century foundÊthe "cowpens" among the canebrakes and peavine pastures of the South, andÊthe "cow drivers" took their droves to Charleston, Philadelphia, and NewÊYork. Travelers at the close of the War o f 1812 met droves of more than aÊthousand cattle and swine from the interior of Ohio going to Pennsylvania toÊfatten for the Philadelphia market. The ranges of the Grea t Plains, withÊranch and cowboy and nomadic life, are things of yesterday and of today. TheÊexperience of the Carolina cowpens guided the ranchers of Texas. One elementÊfavoring therapid extension of the rancher's frontier is the fact that in aÊremote cou ntry lacking transportation facilities the product must be inÊsmall bulk, or must be abl e to transport itself, and the cattle-raiserÊcould easily drive his product to market. The effect of these great ranchesÊon the subsequent agrarian history of the loc alities in which they existedÊshould be studied.ÊÊÊ ÊÊ 

The maps of the census reports show an uneven advance of the farmer'sÊfrontier, with tongues of settlement pushed forward and with indentations ofÊwilderness. In part this is due to Indian resistance, in part to theÊlocation of river valleys and pass es, in part to the unequal force of theÊcenters of frontier attraction. Among the important centers of attractionÊmay be mentioned the following: fertile and favorably situated soils, saltÊsprings, mines, and army posts.Ê ÊÊ 

The frontier army post, serving to protect the settlers from the Indians,Êhas also acted as a wedge to open the Indian country, and has been a nucleusÊfor settlement. in this connection mention should also be made of theÊgovernment military and explo ring expeditions in determining the lines ofÊsettlement. But all the more important expeditions were greatly indebted toÊthe earliest pathmakers, the Indian guides, the traders and trappers, andÊthe French voyageurs, who were inevitable parts of governmen tal expeditionsÊfrom the days of Lewis and Clark. Each expedition was an epitome of theÊprevious factors in western advance.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

In an interesting monograph, Victor Hehn has traced the effect of salt uponÊearly European development, and has pointed out how it affected the lines ofÊsettlement and the form of administration. A similar study might be made forÊthe salt springs of the United States The early settlers were tied to theÊcoast by the need of salt, without which they could not preserve their meatsÊor live in comfort. Writing in 1752~ Bishop Spangenburg says of a colony forÊwhich he was seeking lands in North Carolina, "They will require salt &Êother necessaries which they can neither manufacture nor raise. Either theyÊmust go to Charleston, which is 300 miles distant . . . Or else they must goÊto Boling's Point in Va on a branch of the James & is also 300 miles fromÊhe re . . . Or else they must go down the Roanoke --I know not how manyÊmiles--where salt is brought up from the Cape Fear." This may serve as aÊtypical illustration. An annual pilgrimage to the coast for salt thus becameÊessential. Taking flocks or furs and ginseng root, the early settlers sentÊtheir pack trains after seeding time each year to the coast. This proved toÊbe an important educational influence, since it was almost the only way inÊwhich the pioneer learned what was going on in the East. But when discoveryÊwas made of the salt springs of the Kanawha, and the Holston, and Kentucky,Êand central New York, the West began to be freed from dependence on theÊcoast. It was in part the effect of finding these salt springs that enabledÊsettlement to cross the mountains.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

From the time the mountains rose between the pioneer and the seaboard, a newÊorder of Americanism arose. The West and the East began to get out of touchÊof each other. The settlements from the sea to the mountains kept connectionÊwith the rear and had a certain solidarity. But the over-mountain men grewÊmore independent. The East took a narrow view of American advance, andÊnearly lost these men. Kentucky and Tennessee history bears abundant witnessÊto the truth of this statement. The East began to try to hedge and limitÊwestward expansion. Though Webster could declare that there were noÊAlleghenies in his politics, yet in politics in general they were a veryÊsolid factor.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

The exploitation of the beasts took hunter and trader to the west, theÊexploitation of the grasses took the rancher west, and the exploitation ofÊthe virgin soil of the river valleys and prairies attracted the farmer. GoodÊsoils have been the most c ontinuous attraction to the farmer's frontier. TheÊland hunger of the Virginians drew them down the rivers into Carolina, inÊearly colonial days; the search for soils took the Massachusetts men toÊPennsylvania and to New York. As the eastern lands were ta ken up migrationÊflowed across them to the west. Daniel Boone, the great backwoodsman, whoÊcombined the occupations of hunter, trader, cattle-raiser, farmer, andÊsurveyor --learning, probably from the traders, of the fertility of theÊlands of the upper Ya dkin, where the traders were wont to rest as they tookÊtheir way to the Indians--left his Pennsylvania home with his father, andÊpassed down the Great Valley road to that stream. Learning from a trader ofÊthe game and rich pastures of Kentucky, he pioneer ed the way for the farmersÊto that region. Thence he passed to the frontier of Missouri, where hisÊsettlement was long a landmark on the frontier. Here again he helped to openÊthe way for civilization, finding salt licks, and trails, and land. His sonÊwas among the earliest trappers in the passes of the Rocky Mountains, andÊhis party are said to have been the first to camp on the present site ofÊDenver. His grandson, Colonel A. J. Boone, of Colorado, was a power amongÊthe Indians of the Rocky Mountains, a nd was appointed an agent by theÊgovernment. Kit Carson's mother was a Boone. Thus this family epitomizes theÊbackwoodsman's advance across the continent.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

The farmer's advance came in a distinct series of waves. In Peck's New GuideÊto the West, published in Boston in 1837, occurs this suggestive passage:Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

Generally, in all the western settlements, three classes, like the waves ofÊthe ocean, have rolled one after the other. First comes the pioneer, whoÊdepends for the subsistence of his family chiefly upon the natural growth ofÊvegetation, called the "range," and the proceeds of hunting. His implementsÊof agriculture are rude, chiefly of his own make, and his efforts directedÊmainly to a crop of corn and a "truck patch." The last is a rude garden forÊgrowing cabbage, beans, corn for roasting ears, cu cumbers, and potatoes. AÊlog cabin, and, occasionally, a stable and corn-crib, and a field of a dozenÊacres, the timber girdled or "deadened," and fenced, are enough for hisÊoccupancy. It is quite immaterial whether he ever becomes the owner of theÊsoil. He is the occupant for the time being, pays no rent, and feels asÊindependent as the "lord of the manor." With a horse, cow, and one or twoÊbreeders of swine, he strikes into the woods with his family, and becomesÊthe founder of a new county, or perhaps s tate. He builds his cabin, gathersÊaround him a few other families of similar tastes and habits, and occupiesÊtill the range is somewhat subdued, and hunting a little precarious, or,Êwhich is more frequently the case, till the neighbors crowd around, road s,Êbridges, and fields annoy him, and he lacks elbow room. The preemption lawÊenables him to dispose of his cabin and cornfield to the next class ofÊemigrants; and, to employ his own figures, he "breaks for the high timber,"Ê"clears out for the New Purcha se," or migrates to Arkansas or Texas, to workÊthe same process over.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

The next class of emigrants purchase the lands, add field to field, clearÊout the roads, throw rough bridges over the streams, put up hewn log housesÊwith glass windows and brick or stone chimneys, occasionally plant orchards,Êbuild mills, schoolhou ses, courthouses, etc., and exhibit the picture andÊforms of plain, frugal, civilized life.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

Another wave rolls on. The men of capital and enterprise come. The settler isÊready to sell out and take the advantage of the rise in property, pushÊfarther into the interior and become, himself, a man of capital, andÊenterprise in turn. The small village rises to a spacious town or city;Êsubstantial edifices of brick, extensive fields, orchards, gardens,Êcolleges, and churches are seen. Broadcloths, silks, leghorns, crapes, andÊall the refinements, luxuries, elegancies, frivolities, and fashions a re inÊvogue Thus wave after wave is rolling westward; the real Eldorado is stillÊfarther on.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

A portion of the two first classes remain stationary amidst the generalÊmovement, improve their habits and condition, and rise in the scale ofÊsociety. The writer has traveled much amongst the first class, the realÊpioneers. He has lived many years in connection with the second grade; andÊnow the third wave is sweeping over large districts of Indiana, Illinois,Êand Missouri. Migration has become almost a habit in the West. Hundreds ofÊmen can be found, not over 50 years of age, who have settled for the fourth,Êfifth, or sixth time on a new spot. To sell out and remove only a fewÊhundred miles makes up a portion of the variety of backwoods life andÊmanners.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

Omitting those of the pioneer farmers who move from the love of adventure,Êthe advance of the more steady farmer is easy to understand. Obviously theÊimmigrant was attracted by the cheap lands of the frontier, and even theÊnative farmer felt their influence strongly. Year by year the farmers whoÊlived on soil whose returns were diminished by unrotated crops were offeredÊthe virgin soil of the frontier at nominal prices. Their growing familiesÊdemanded more lands, and these were dear. The competitio n of theÊunexhausted, cheap, and easily tilled prairie lands compelled the farmerÊeither to go west and continue the exhaustion of the soil on a new frontier,Êor to adopt intensive culture. Thus the census of 1890 shows, in theÊNorthwest, many counties in which there is an absolute or a relativeÊdecrease of population. These States have been sending farmers to advanceÊthe frontier on the plains, and have themselves begun to turn to intensiveÊfarming and to manufacture. A decade before this, Ohio had shown the sameÊtransition stage. Thus the demand for land and the love of wildernessÊfreedom drew the frontier ever onward.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

Having now roughly outlined the various kinds of frontiers, and their modesÊof advance, chiefly from the point of view of the frontier itself, we mayÊnext inquire what were the influences on the East and on the Old World. AÊrapid enumeration of some of the more noteworthy effects is all that I haveÊtime for. First, we note that the frontier promoted the formation of aÊcomposite nationality for th e American preponderantly English, but theÊlater tides of continental immigration flowed across the free lands. ThisÊwas the case from the early colonial days. The Scotch-lrish and the PalatineÊGermans, or "Pennsylvania Dutch," furnished the dominant eleme nt in theÊstock of the colonial frontier. With these peoples were also the freedÊindented servants, or redemptioners, who at the expiration of their time ofÊservice passed to the frontier. Governor Spotswood of Virginia writes inÊ1717, "The inhabitants of our frontiers are composed generally of such asÊhave been transported hither as of their time, settle themselves where landÊis to be taken and that will produce the necessarys of life with littleÊlabour." Very generally these redemptioners were of non- English stock. InÊthe crucible of the frontier the immigrants were Americanized, liberated,Êand fused i nto a mixed race, English in neither nationality norÊcharacteristics. The process has gone on from the early days to our own.ÊBurke and other writers in the middle of the eighteenth century believedÊthat Pennsylvania was "threatened with the danger of bei ng wholly foreign inÊlanguage, manners and perhaps even inclinations." The German andÊScotch-lrish elements in the frontier of the South were only less great. InÊthe middle of the present century the German element in Wisconsin wasÊalready so considerable that leading publicists looked to the creation of aÊGerman state out of the commonwealth by concentrating their colonization.ÊSuch examples teach us to beware of misinterpreting the fact that there is aÊcommon English speech in America into a belief that the stock is alsoÊEnglish.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

In another way the advance of the frontier decreased our dependence onÊEngland. The coast, particularly of the South, lacked diversifiedÊindustries, and was dependent on England for the bulk of its supplies. InÊthe South there was even a dependence on the Northern colonies for articlesÊof food. Governor Glenn, of South Carolina, writes in the middle of theÊeighteenth century: "Our trade with New York and Philadelphia was of thisÊsort, draining us of all the little money and bills we could gather fro mÊother places for their bread, flour, beer, hams, bacon, and other things ofÊtheir produce, all which, except beer, our new townships begin to supply usÊwith, which are settled with very industrious and thriving Germans. This noÊdoubt diminishes the numb er of shipping and the appearance of our trade, butÊit is far from being a detriment to us." Before long the frontier created aÊdemand for merchants. As it retreated from the coast it became less and lessÊpossible for England to bring her supplies directl y to the consumer'sÊwharfs, and carry away staple crops, and staple crops began to give way toÊdiversified agriculture for a time. The effect of this phase of the frontierÊaction upon the northern section is perceived when we realize how theÊadvance of th e frontier aroused seaboard cities like Boston, New York, andÊBaltimore to engage in rivalry for what Washington called "the extensive andÊvaluable trade of a rising empire.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

The legislation which most developed the powers of the national government,Êand played the largest part in its activity, was conditioned on theÊfrontier. Writers have discussed the subjects of tariff, land, and internalÊimprovement, as subsidiary to the slavery question. But when AmericanÊhistory comes to be rightly viewed it will be seen that the slavery questionÊis an incident. In the period from the end of the first half of the presentÊcentury to the close of the Civil War slavery rose to primary , but far fromÊexclusive, importance. But this does not justify Dr. von Holst (to take anÊexample) in treating our constitutional history in its formative period downÊto 1828 in a single volume, giving six volumes chiefly to the history ofÊslavery from 18 28 to 1861, under the title "Constitutional History of theÊUnited States." The growth of nationalism and the evolution of AmericanÊpolitical institutions were dependent on the advance of the frontier. EvenÊso recent a writer as Rhodes, in his "History of the United States since theÊCompromise of 1850," has treated the legislation called out by the westernÊadvance as incidental to the slavery struggle.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

This is a wrong perspective. The pioneer needed the goods of the coast, andÊso the grand series of internal improvement and railroad legislation began,Êwith potent nationalizing effects. Over internal improvements occurred greatÊdebates, in which gr ave constitutional questions were discussed. SectionalÊgroupings appear in the votes, profoundly significant for the historian.ÊLoose construction in- creased as the nation marched westward. But the WestÊwas not content with bringing the farm to the facto ry. Under the lead ofÊClay--"Harry of the West"--protective tariffs were passed, with the cry ofÊbringing the factory to the farm. The disposition of the public lands was aÊthird important subject of national legislation influenced by the frontier.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

The public domain has been a force of profound importance in theÊnationalization and development of the government. The effects of theÊstruggle of the landed and the landless States, and of the Ordinance ofÊ1787, need no discussion. Administratively the frontier called out some ofÊthe highest and most vitalizing activities of the general government. TheÊpurchase of Louisiana was perhaps the constitutional turning point in theÊhistory of the Republic, inasmuch as it afforded both a new area forÊnatio nal legislation and the occasion of the downfall of the policy ofÊstrict construction. But the purchase of Louisiana was called out byÊfrontier needs and demands.ÊÊÊ ÊÊ 

As frontier States accrued to the Union the national power grew. In a speechÊon the dedication of the Calhoun monument Mr. Lamar explained: "In 1789 theÊStates were the creators of the Federal Government; in 1861 the FederalÊGovernment was the creato r of a large majority of the States."ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

When we consider the public domain from the point of view of the sale andÊdisposal of the public lands we are again brought face to face with theÊfrontier. The policy of the United States in dealing with its lands is inÊsharp contrast with the Europ ean system of scientific administration.ÊEfforts to make this domain a source of revenue, and to withhold it fromÊemigrants in order that settlement might be compact, were in vain. TheÊjealousy and the fears of the East were powerless in the face of the d emandsÊof the frontiersmen. John Quincy Adams was obliged to confess: "My ownÊsystem of administration, which was to make the national domain theÊinexhaustible fund for progressive and unceasing internal improvement, hasÊfailed." The reason is obvious: a system of administration was not what theÊWest demanded: it wanted land. Adams states the situation as follows: "TheÊslaveholders of the South have bought the cooperation of the western countryÊby the bribe of the western lands, abandoning to the new West ern StatesÊtheir own proportion of the public property and aiding them in the design ofÊgrasping all the lands into their own hands. Thomas H. Benton was the authorÊof this system, which he brought forward as a substitute for the- AmericanÊsystem of Mr. C lay, and to supplant him as the leading statesman of theÊWest. Mr. Clay, by his tariff compromise with Mr. Calhoun, abandoned his ownÊAmerican system. At the same time he brought forward a plan for distributingÊamong all the States of the Union the procee ds of the sales of the publicÊlands. His bill for that purpose passed both Houses of Congress, but wasÊvetoed by President Jackson, who, in his annual message of December, 1832,Êformally recommended that all public lands should be gratuitously given awayÊ to individual adventurers and to the States in which the lands areÊsituated."Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

"No subject," said Henry Clay, "which has presented itself to the present,Êor perhaps any preceding Congress, is of greater magnitude than that of theÊpublic lands." When we consider the far-reaching effects of the government'sÊland policy upon pol itical, economic, and social aspects of American life,Êwe are disposed to agree with him. But this legislation was framed underÊfrontier influences, and under the lead of Western statesmen like Benton andÊJackson. Said Senator Scott of Indiana in 1841: "I consider the preemptionÊlaw merely declaratory of the custom or common law of the settlers."Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

It is safe to say that the legislation with regard to land, tariff, andÊinternal improvements--the American system of the nationalizing WhigÊparty--was conditioned on frontier ideas and needs. But it was not merely inÊlegislative action that the fr ontier worked against the sectionalism of theÊcoast. The economic and social characteristics of the frontier workedÊagainst sectionalism. The men of the frontier had closer resemblances to theÊMiddle region than to either of the other sections. Pennsylvan ia had beenÊthe seed-plot of frontier emigration, and, although she passed on herÊsettlers along the Great Valley into the west of Virginia and the Carolinas,Êyet the industrial society of these Southern frontiersmen was always moreÊlike that of the Middl e region than like that of the tidewater portion ofÊthe South, which later came to spread its industrial type throughout theÊSouth.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

The Middle region, entered by New York harbor, was an open door to allÊEurope, The tidewater part of the South represented typical Englishmen,Êmodified by a warm climate and servile labor, and living in baronial fashionÊon great plantations; New En gland stood for a special EnglishÊmovement--Puritanism. The Middle region was less English than the otherÊsections. It had a wide mixture of nationalities, a varied society, theÊmixed town and county system of local government, a varied economic life,Êman y religious sects. In short, it was a region mediating between NewÊEngland and the South, and the East and the West. It represented thatÊcomposite nationality which the contemporary United States exhibits, thatÊjuxtaposition of non-English groups, occupyi ng a valley or a littleÊsettlement, and presenting reflections of the map of Europe in theirÊvariety. It was democratic and non-sectional, if not national; "easy,Êtolerant, and contented"; rooted strongly in material prosperity. It wasÊtypical of the mode rn United States. It was least sectional, not onlyÊbecause it lay between North and South, but also because with no barriers toÊshut out its frontiers from its settled region, and with a system ofÊconnecting waterways, the Middle region mediated between E ast and West asÊwell as between North and South. Thus it became the typically AmericanÊregion. Even the New Englander, who was shut out from the frontier by theÊMiddle region, tarrying in New York or Pennsylvania on his westward march,Êlost the acuteness of his sectionalism on the way.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

The spread of cotton culture into the interior of the South finally brokeÊdown the contrast between the "tidewater" region and the rest of the State,Êand based Southern interests on slavery. Before this process revealed itsÊresults the western port ion of the South, which was akin to Pennsylvania inÊstock, society, and industry, showed tendencies to fall away from the faithÊof the fathers into internal improvement legislation and nationalism. In theÊVirginia convention of 1829-30, called to revise t he constitution, Mr.ÊLeigh, of Chesterfield, one of the tidewater counties, declared:ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

One of the main causes of discontent which led to this convention, thatÊwhich had the strongest influence in overcoming our veneration for the workÊof our fathers, which taught us to contemn the sentiments of Henry and MasonÊand Pendleton, which wea ned us from our reverence for the constitutedÊauthorities of the State, was an overweening passion for internalÊimprovement. I say this with perfect knowledge, for it has been avowed to meÊby gentlemen from the West over and over again. And let me tell th eÊgentleman from Albemarle (Mr. Gordon) that it has been another principalÊobject of those who set this ball of revolution in motion, to overturn theÊdoctrine of State rights, of which Virginia has been the very pillar, and toÊremove the barrier she has i nterposed to the interference of the FederalÊGovernment in that same work of internal improvement, by so reorganizing theÊlegislature that Virginia, too, may be hitched to the Federal car.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

It was this nationalizing tendency of the West that transformed theÊdemocracy of Jefferson into the national republicanism of Monroe and theÊdemocracy of Andrew Jackson. The West of the War of 1812, the West of Clay,Êand Benton and Harrison, and And rew Jackson, shut off by the Middle StatesÊand the mountains from the coast sections, had a solidarity of its own withÊnational tendencies. On the tide of the Father of Waters, North and SouthÊmet and mingled into a nation. Interstate migration went stead ily on--aÊprocess of cross-fertilization of ideas and institutions. The fierceÊstruggle of the sections over slavery on the western frontier does notÊdiminish the truth of this statement; it proves the truth of it. Slavery wasÊa sectional trait that would not down, but in the West it could not remainÊsectional. It was the greatest of frontiersmen who declared: "I believe thisÊGovernment can not endure permanently half slave and half free. It willÊbecome all of one thing or all of the other." Nothing works for nationalismÊlike intercourse within the nation. Mobility of population is death toÊlocalism, and the western frontier worked irresistibly in unsettlingÊpopulation. The effect reached back from the frontier and affectedÊprofoundly the Atlantic coast a nd even the Old World.Ê ÊÊÊÊ 

But the most important effect of the frontier has been in the promotion ofÊdemocracy here and in Europe. As has been indicated the frontier isÊproductive of individualism. Complex society is precipitated by theÊwilderness into a kind of primitive o rganization, based on the family. TheÊtendency is anti-social. It produces antipathy to control, and particularlyÊto any direct control. The tax- gatherer is viewed as a representative ofÊoppression. Professor Osgood, in an able article, has pointed out t hat theÊfrontier- conditions prevalent in the colonies are important factors in theÊexplanation of the American Revolution, where individual liberty wasÊsometimes confused with absence of all effective government. The sameÊconditions aid in explaining the difficulty of instituting a strongÊgovernment in the period of the confederacy. The frontier individualism hasÊfrom the beginning promoted democracy.Ê 

The frontier States that came into the Union in the first quarter of aÊcentury of its existence came in with democratic suffrage provisions, andÊhad reactive effects of the highest importance upon the older States whoseÊpeoples were being attracted th ere. An extension of the franchise becameÊessential. It was western New York that forced an extension of suffrage inÊthe constitutional convention of that State in 1821, and it was westernÊVirginia that compelled the tidewater region to put a more liberal suffrageÊprovision in the constitution framed in 1830, and to give to the frontierÊregion a more nearly proportionate representation with the tidewaterÊaristocracy. The rise of democracy as an effective force in the nation cameÊin with western prepondera nce under Jackson and William Henry Harrison, andÊit meant the triumph of the frontier--with all of its good and with all ofÊits evil elements. An interesting illustration of the tone of frontierÊdemocracy in 1830 comes from the same debates in the Virgin ia conventionÊalready referred to. A representative from western Virginia declared:ÊÊ 

But, sir, it is not the increase of population in the West which thisÊgentleman ought to fear. It is the energy which the mountain breeze andÊwestern habits impart to those emigrants. They are regenerated, politicallyÊI mean, sir. They soon become wor king politicians; and the difference, sir,Êbetween a talking and a working politician is immense. The Old Dominion hasÊlong been celebrated for producinggreat orators; the ablest metaphysiciansÊin policy; men that can split hairs in all abstruse questions of politicalÊeconomy. But at home, or when they return from Congress, they have NegroesÊto fan them asleep. But a Pennsylvania, a New York, an Ohio, or a westernÊVirginia statesman, though far inferior in logic, metaphysics, and rhetoricÊto an old Virgin ia statesman, has this advantage, that when he returns homeÊhe takes off his coat and takes hold of the plow. This gives him bone andÊmuscle, sir, and preserves his republican principles pure andÊuncontaminated.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

So long as free land exists, the opportunity for a competency exists, andÊeconomic power secures political power. But the democracy born of free land,Êstrong in selfishness and individualism, intolerant of administrativeÊexperience and education, an d pressing individual liberty beyond its properÊbounds, has its dangers as well as its benefits. Individualism in AmericaÊhas allowed a laxity in regard to governmental affairs which has renderedÊpossible the spoils system and all the manifest evils that follow from theÊlack of a highly developed civic spirit. In this connection may be notedÊalso the influence of frontier conditions in permitting lax business honor,Êinflated paper currency and wildcat banking. The colonial and revo-Êlutionary frontier was the region whence emanated many of the worst forms ofÊan evil currency. The West in the War of 1812 repeated the phenomenon on theÊfrontier of that day, while the speculation and wildcat banking of theÊperiod of the crisis of 1837 occurred on the new fro ntier belt of the nextÊtier of States. Thus each one of the periods of lax financial integrityÊcoincides with periods when a new set of frontier communities had arisen,Êand coincides in area with these successive frontiers, for the most part.ÊThe recent P opulist agitation is a case in point. Many a State that nowÊdeclines any connection with the tenets of the Populists, itself adhered toÊsuch ideas in an earlier stage of the development of the State. A primitiveÊsociety can hardly be expected to show the intelligent appreciation of theÊcomplexity of business interests in a developed society. The continualÊrecurrence of these areas of paper-money agitation is another evidence thatÊthe frontier can be isolated and studied as a factor in American history ofÊ the highest importance. The East has always feared the result of anÊunregulated advance of the frontier, and has tried to check and guide it.ÊThe English authorities would have checked settlement at the headwaters ofÊthe Atlantic tributaries and allowed t he "savages to enjoy their deserts inÊquiet lest the peltry trade should decrease." This called out Burke'sÊsplendid protest:Ê ÊÊ 

"If you stopped your grants, what would be the consequence? The people wouldÊoccupy without grants. They have already so occupied in many places. You canÊnot station garrisons in every part of these deserts. If you drive theÊpeople from one place, th ey will carry on their annual tillage and removeÊwith their flocks and herds to another. Many of the people in the backÊsettlements are already little attached to particular situations. AlreadyÊthey have topped the Appalachian Mountains. From thence they behold beforeÊthem an immense plain, one vast, rich level meadow; a square of;five hundredÊmiles. Over this they would wander without a possibility of restraint; theyÊwould change their manners with their habits of life; would soon forget aÊgovernment by which they were disowned; would become hordes of EnglishÊTartars; and, pouring down upon your unfortified frontiers a fierce andÊirresistible cavalry, become masters of your governors and your counselors,Êyour collectors and comptrollers, and of all the s laves that adhered toÊthem. Such would, and in no long time must, be the effect of attempting toÊforbid as a crime and to suppress as an evil the command and blessing ofÊProvidence, "Increase and multiply." Such would be the happy result of anÊendeavor to keep as a lair of wild beasts that earth which God, by anÊexpress charter, has given to the children of men."ÊÊ 

But the English Government was not alone in its desire to limit the advanceÊof the frontier and guide its destinies. Tidewater Virginia and SouthÊCarolina gerrymandered those colonies to insure the dominance of the coastÊin their legislatures. Washing ton desired to settle a State at a time in theÊNorthwest; Jefferson would reserve from settlement the territory of hisÊLouisiana Purchase north of the thirty-second parallel, in order to offer itÊto the Indians in exchange for their settlements east of th e Mississippi.Ê"When we shall be full on this side," he writes, "we may lay off a range ofÊStates on the western bank from the head to the mouth, and so range afterÊrange, advancing compactly as we multiply." Madison went so far as to argueÊto the French minister that the United States had no interest in seeingÊpopulation extend itself on the right bank of the Mississippi, but shouldÊrather fear it. When the Oregon question was under debate, in 1824, Smyth,Êof Virginia, would draw an unchangeable line for the limits of the UnitedÊStates at the outer limit of two tiers of States beyond the Mississippi,Êcomplaining that the seaboard States were being drained of the flower ofÊtheir population by the bringing of too much land into market. Even ThomasÊBenton, the man of widest views of the destiny of the West, at this stage ofÊhis career declared that along the ridge of the Rocky Mountains "the westernÊlimits of the Republic should be drawn, and the statue of the fabled godÊTerminus should be raised upon its h ighest peak, never to be thrown down."ÊBut the attempts to limit the boundaries, to restrict land sales andÊsettlement, and to deprive the West of its share of political power were allÊin vain. Steadily the frontier of settlement advanced and carried with itÊindividualism, democracy, and nationalism, and powerfully affected the EastÊand the Old World.ÊÊÊ 

The most effective efforts of the East to regulate the frontier came throughÊits educational and religious activity, exerted by interstate migration andÊby organized societies. Speaking in 1835, Dr. Lyman Beecher declared: "It isÊequally plain that th e religious and political destiny of our nation is toÊbe decided in the West," and he pointed out that the population of the WestÊ"is assembled from all the States of the Union and from all the nations ofÊEurope, and is rushing in like the waters of the f lood, demanding for itsÊmoral preservation the immediate and universal action of those institutionsÊwhich discipline the mind and arm the conscience and the heart. And soÊvarious are the opinions and habits, and so recent and imperfect is theÊacquaintance , and so sparse are the settlements of the West, that noÊhomogeneous public sentiment can be formed to legislate immediately intoÊbeing the requisite institutions. And yet they are all needed immediately inÊtheir utmost perfection and power. A nation is b eing 'born in a day.' . . But what will become of the West if her prosperity rushes up to such aÊmajesty of power, while those great institutions linger which are necessaryÊto form the mind and the conscience and the heart of that vast world? ItÊmust not be permitted.... Let no man at the East quiet himself and dream ofÊliberty, whatever may become of the West.... Her destiny is our destiny."Ê 

With the appeal to the conscience of New England, he adds appeals to herÊfears lest other religious sects anticipate her own. The New EnglandÊpreacher and school-teacher left their mark on the West. The dread of WesternÊemancipation from New England's political and economic control wasÊparalleled by her fears lest the West cut loose from her religion.ÊCommenting in 1850 on reports that settlement was rapidly extendingÊnorthward in Wisconsin, the editor of the Home Missionary writes: "WeÊscarcely know whether to rejoice or mourn over this extension of ourÊsettlements. While we sympathize in whatever tends to increase the physicalÊresources and prosperity of our country, we can not forget that with allÊthese dispersions into remote and still remoter cor ners of the land theÊsupply of the means of grace is becoming relatively less and less." ActingÊin accordance with such ideas, home missions were established and WesternÊcolleges were erected. As seaboard cities like Philadelphia, New York, andÊBaltimore strove for the mastery of Western trade, so the variousÊdenominations strove for the possession of the West. Thus an intellectualÊstream from New England sources fertilized the West. Other sections sentÊtheir missionaries; but the real struggle was betwee n sects. The contest forÊpower and the expansive tendency furnished to the various sects by theÊexistence of a moving frontier must have had important results on theÊcharacter of religious organization in the United States. The multiplicationÊof rival chu rches in the little frontier towns had deep and lasting socialÊeffects. The religious aspects of the frontier make a chapter in our historyÊwhich needs study.ÊÊ ÊÊÊ 

From the conditions of frontier life came intellectual traits of profoundÊimportance. The works of travelers along each frontier from colonial daysÊonward describe certain common traits, and these traits have, whileÊsoftening down, still persisted a s survival in the place of their origin,Êeven when a higher social organization succeeded. The result is that to theÊfrontier the American intellect owes its striking characteristics. ThatÊcoarseness and strength combined with acuteness and inquisitivenes s; thatÊpractical, inventive turn of mind, quick to find expedients; that masterfulÊgrasp of material things, lacking in the artistic but powerful to effectÊgreat ends; that restless, nervous energy; that dominant individualism,Êworking for good and for e vil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance whichÊcomes with freedom--these are traits of the frontier, or traits called outÊelsewhere because of the existence of the frontier. Since the days when theÊfleet of Columbus sailed into the waters of the New W orld, America has beenÊanother name for opportunity, and the people of the United States have takenÊtheir tone from the incessant expansion which has not only been open but hasÊeven been forced upon them. He would be a rash prophet who should assertÊthat the expansive character of American life has now entirely ceased.ÊMovement has been its dominant fact, and, unless this training has no effectÊupon a people, the American energy will continually demand a wider field forÊits exercise. But never again will such gifts of free land offer themselves.ÊFor a moment, at the frontier, the bonds of custom are broken andÊunrestraint is triumphant. There is not tabula rasa. The stubborn AmericanÊenvironment is there with its imperious summons to accept its conditions ;Êthe inherited ways of doing things are also there; and yet, in spite ofÊenvironment, and in spite of custom, each frontier did indeed furnish a newÊfield of opportunity, a gate of escape from the bondage of the past; andÊfreshness, and confidence, and s corn of older society, impatience of itsÊrestraints and its ideas, and indifference to its lessons, have accompaniedÊthe frontier. What the Mediterranean Sea was to the Greeks, breaking theÊbond of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new institu tions andÊactivities, that, and more, the ever retreating frontier has been to theÊUnited States directly, and to the nations of Europe more remotely. And now,Êfour centuries from the discovery of America, at the end of a hundred yearsÊof life under the C onstitution, the frontier has gone, and with its goingÊhas closed the first period of American history.Ê